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THE conversion of the skins
of animals into leather, and of the latter into articles of clothing and
convenience, has from the earliest times formed an important branch of
industry. The equipment of the early Briton consisted almost solely of
prepared skins; and notwithstanding the wonderful progress that has been
made in the arts since his day, the material which was indispensable to him
is not much less so to us. Leather answers innumerable useful purposes; and
though substitutes for it have long been sought, none has yet been found.
True, it has been relieved from doing duty in some ways by india-rubber,
gutta-percha, and the like; but none of those substances can compete with it
in lightness, durability, or beauty, as a covering for the feet, or as a
material for making harness, which are the chief purposes to which it is
applied.
Seventy years ago it was
estimated that the value of the articles manufactured from leather in Great
Britain amounted to L.12,000,000. Mr M'Culloch, in his "Statistical Account
of the British Empire," thus calculates the extent of the trade about
thirty-five years ago:— "At an average of the years 1833 and 1834, no fewer
than 304,279 cwts. of foreign cow, ox, and buffalo hides were entered for
home consumption, exclusive of vast quantities of lamb-skins, goat-skins,
&c. The total quantity of all sorts of leather tawed, tanned, dressed, and
curried in Great Britain may at present (1837) be estimated at about
65,000,000 lb., which, at ls. 6d. per lb., gives L.4,875,000 as the value of
leather only. Now, supposing, as is sometimes done, the value of leather to
amount to one-third the value of the finished articles produced from it,
that would show the value of the manufacture to be L.14,625,000 or
L.14,600,000. We incline, however, to think that the value of the
manufactured leather articles does not amount at an average to three times
the value of the raw material; and, therefore, we may perhaps estimate the
entire value of the manufacture at L.13,000,000 or L.13,500,000." Supposing
the estimate made seventy years ago and that of Mr M`Culloch to be correct,
it would appear that in thirty-five years the leather manufacture had
increased in annual value only by L.1,000,000 or L.1,500,000. It would be
difficult to state with certainty the present extent of the trade; but a few
figures from the Board of Trade Returns will show the quantity and value of
the exports and imports of hides and leather. In 1866 there were imported
1,133,130 cwt. of hides, valued at L.3,360,876; and 9,285,928 sheep, goat,
kid, and seal skins, the value of which is not stated separately, but it may
be taken at something like L.700,000. Manufactured leather was imported to
the following amount :-Boots, shoes, and boot fronts, L.90,707; gloves,
L.1,194,665; unenumerated goods, L.67,641—total, L.1,353,013. - The exports
in the same year were 38,900 cwt. of leather, 3,546,618 pairs of boots and
shoes, 14,754 cwt. of leather worked up in various ways, and L252,484 worth
of saddlery—the aggregate value being L.2,030,464. To the hides and skins
imported have to be added those produced at home, which must nearly equal in
number and value those brought from abroad. There are three hide markets in
Scotland— at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen—and the number of hides sold
at these in 1867 was as follows:—Edinburgh, 30,512; Glasgow, 54,836; and
Aberdeen, 41,600. Though so many hides are brought into the Aberdeen market,
there is no important tan-yard in that city, but a large number of cattle
are killed in the district for supplying the London markets.
Leather has been manufactured
in Scotland from an early date. The Edinburgh corporation of "cordiners" or
shoemakers, was founded about the year 1449, and it is probable that the
leather they used was home-made. The " skinners," as the makers of leather
were designated, were incorporated in 1586; and regulations for their good
government and the proper conducting of their manufactures were subsequently
made from time to time by the Town Council. Several acts were passed by the
Scottish Parliament for the protection of the trade of the skinners. The
first of these is dated 1592, and it prohibits "all transporting and
carrying foorth of this realme of calve-skinnes, huddrounes, and kid-skinnes,
packing and peilling thereof, in time cum:ling, under the paine of
confiscation of the same to His Majestie's use." The act was confirmed next
year, and the following addition made to it:—"That His Majestie and Estaites
of this Parliament, understanding how necessary and profitable the schurling
skinnes ar for lyning cuscheones, making of poikes, lyning, puitches,
glooves, and claithing of the puir, and utherwise serving to diverse uther
uses to all His Majestie's lieges; quhilkis be the transporting and carrying
of the same foorth of this realme, ar become to ane exorbitant dearth, that
therethrow, not onlie the skinners are greattumlie hurt and prejudged, be
the in¬laik of the leather thereof, quhairwith to worke; as alswa His
Majestie importis na profite thereof be custome, nor utherwis; bot alswa all
uthers His Hienesse lieges ar greattumlie hurt and prejUdged thereof,
therefore it is statute and ordained, that na merchand, craftesman, or uther
person or persones, cane, or trans¬port, onie of the saidis schurling
skinnes, nor uther skinnes above mentioned, foorth of this realme, under the
paine of confiscation of sa monie as sall happen to be apprehended, and
furder punishment of the persones, transporters and contraveenirs of the
present acte in their person and guddes, according to His Majestie's
pleasure." This act would appear to have become in course of time a dead
letter; but in 1661 it was revived by the Parliament of Charles II., who,
considering how necessary it was that all former laws for improving native
commodities should be re-enacted, and understanding that the skinners had at
their own cost brought from abroad perfumers, and makers, and preparers of
leather, by whose labour and skill the people might be furnished with gloves
at an easier rate, and be able to supply other countries with leather work,
ratified the act above quoted, and ordered it to be put into execution. For
the further encouragement of the skinner trade, a manufacturing license was
given at the same time to export gloves made within the kingdom free of all
custom and excise.
Edinburgh has always been the
chief seat of the leather manufacture in Scotland. Arnot states that in 1778
a considerable trade was done in leather, that there were several tanneries
in the outskirts of the city, and that the skinners were well employed.
Shoes were made in great quantities, for not only was the home demand met,
but a large export trade in those articles was done with the West Indies.
Several British regiments raised after the American war were supplied with
shoes from Edinburgh. A special feature of the trade in the city is
mentioned. That was the making of leather snuff-boxes, pen-cases,
drinking-mugs, and a variety of other articles. By a patented process the
leather was brought to assume the appearance and consistency of
tortoise-shell, being transparent and susceptible of receiving a high polish
The patent was in the hands of Messrs Thomas Clark & Son, whose productions
became famous both at home and abroad. The duty on the leather manufactured
in Edinburgh in 1778 amounted to L.1100, 5s., which, at 12d. a-pound, would
represent about 1572 cwt., the value of which at present rates would be
nearly L.13,000. From an early period leather had been subject to a duty,
and the manufacture was accordingly carried on under the surveillance of the
Excise. Up till 1812 the duty was at the rate of lid. a-pound; but in that
year it was raised to 3d., and was continued at that figure until 1822, when
it was reduced to the old rate. The reduced duty amounted to L.360,000
a-year. In 1830 the duty was finally repealed.
There are in Scotland about
120 tanneries, in which nearly 3000 persons are employed. A number of the
tanneries are of small extent, and limited to tanning a few hides procured
in the locality in which they are situated. Of workers in leather, boot and
shoe makers number 27,000, and saddlers and harness-makers 2000, so that in
Scotland 32,000 persons are employed in making and working in leather. Since
the application of machinery to making boots and shoes, several large
manufactories of those articles have been started in Scotland. In one
establishment in Glasgow no fewer than 2000 persons are employed.
The leather manufactory of Mr
Allan Boak, West Port, Edinburgh, is the largest establishment of the kind
in Scotland, having a floor space of 5682 superficial yards. A portion of
the buildings has been used as a tannery from time immemorial, and about a
century ago was acquired by the great-grandfather of the present
representative of the firm; and in his hands, and those of his successors,
the place grew under the pressure of an expanding trade, until it became the
largest tannery in the city. Two or three years ago the premises were almost
totally destroyed by fire, a misfortune attended by one good result only—the
opportunity it gave for reconstructing the tannery in a more modern and
substantial style, which was done at a cost of L.10,000. The kinds of
leather made by Mr Boak form an extensive list, but his specialty is the
preparation of pig-skins, in which department he is one of the most
extensive manufacturers in Britain. The two principal branches of
leather-making were conducted separately until recent years, as, previous to
the repeal of the duty on leather, persons were prohibited from carrying on
taning and currying at the same time. The occupation of the tanner and
currier are so different that they might well remain apart; and in many
cases they are carried on as distinct trades. In Mr Beak's establishment,
however, they are united, and joined with them are departments for
enamelling and japanning leather.
The tanning department
occupies the largest amount of space, and the operations conducted in it
have to be carefully managed, as the quality of the leather depends more
upon the tanning than upon any or all of the subsequent processes. The
object of the tanner is to destroy in the hides and skins the liability to
putrefaction common to animal matter, and to render them impervious to the
action of agents which would decompose them under ordinary circumstances.
This is done by steeping the skins in an astringent liquid prepared from
bark. The active principle eliminated from the bark is called tannin, or
tannic acid, which forms a chemical combination with the skins. The bark of
the oak is the most valuable to the tanner, and is most extensively used;
and for a long time no other substance was employed in tanning The demand
for oak bark having come to exceed the supply, various substitutes were
tried, among these being heath, myrtle leaves, wild laurel leaves, birch
bark, and oak sawdust. Varied results attended the experiments, but oak bark
has never lost its supremacy. What the tanner has got to do, then, is to
treat the hides, &c., with an infusion of bark, so as to produce the desired
effect. This is a slow process, and attempts have been made to hasten it.
Some years ago an Italian tanner (Signor Cesare Osmani), in the employment
of Messrs Moore, Morelitt, & Co., Ancona, discovered that Italian
mustard-seed could be successfully employed for tanning purposes, and after
many experiments, the following important results are said to have been
established:—That the duration of the tanning process is reduced to from
one-third to one-fourth of the time hitherto required for the different
tannages, whether of oak- bark, valonia, gambier, or other tanning
materials. This result is obtained without any additional expenditure,
because, although the mustard-seed is an item to be added to the cost of
tanning, yet the mere saving of liquors and labour fully compensates this.
The quality of the leather produced is unexceptionable, and the weight
obtained is fully equal, and often much exceeds, that obtained by the old
process. The colour of the leather is clearer, and hence better; and the
reason for this is that the mustard-bath, to which the hides are subjected
in this process, has the effect of expelling the lime which in certain
proportions remains in hides subjected to the lime-pit, despite the most
scrupulous purging. The fibre of the hide is not injured by the bath in
mustard-seed. Signor Osmani came to Scotland in 1868, and commenced
operations in Glasgow, and subsequently in London. In both places he is said
to have fully demonstrated the practicability of his discovery. But we
revert to the establishment more immediately under notice.
The hides arrive at the
tannery in one of three states—they are either fresh from the
slaughter-house, salted, or dried. Dutch hides are salted, and those which
come from America or the East are dried. In the first stage of treatment
there is consequently a little variety. The fresh hides give least trouble,
but the salted and dried ones require special manipulation to make them
soft. The hair in all cases is removed by steeping the hides in a solution
of lime and water. In the floor of the workshop in which this operation is
performed is a range of pits, about six feet in depth, in which the lime
liquor is contained. As the hides, after steeping a certain time, are
withdrawn from the pits, they are laid on a sloping bench with a convex top,
and subjected to scraping with a huge two-handled knife. The hair having
been removed, the flesh side is turned up, and all the fleshy portions are
scraped off. 'Rides or skins intended for boots, harness, coachwork, and
other purposes requiring dressed leather, are cleansed from grease and other
impurities by being soaked in a decoction of pigeon's dung. They are then
softened by being beaten for from fifteen to twenty minutes by a set of
beating stocks. That operation completed, the hides are conveyed to the
tan-yards, in which are a large number of pits, of various sizes—in fact,
the yards may be described as lakes divided by walls into a series of square
tanks, about six feet in depth. Each tank is cut off from communication with
its neighbours, and is fitted with a waste-pipe, by which it may be emptied.
A couple of steam-pumps and a set of hose supply the tanks with liquor, and
thus dispense with the services of a large number of pumpers and
water-bearers, whom it was necessary to employ before the introduction of
steam.
There is a bark mill on the
premises, by which the oak bark is ground. The bark is infused with water in
a range of large tanks, and from these the other tanks are supplied. The
hides are first allowed to steep in a weak solution of bark for from four to
six months, during which time they are "handled"—that is, they are taken out
of the pits one by one, then put in again, and treated to fresh liquor of
slightly increased strength. After being shifted about in that way, every
day for the period stated, the hides are spread out, one over the other,
with a layer of oak bark between, and the pit being filled with strong bark
liquor, the whole is allowed to lie for four months if the hides are light,
and for six months if they are heavy. Twelve months are required to tan
heavy ox-hides to perfection, and none are sent out in less time by Mr Boak.
In one old established tan-yard in Musselburgh—that of Messrs Miller—two
years are devoted to tanning heavy hides. As already stated, many plans have
been devised for hastening the process; but faith in the old mode is still
strong in the trade. Among the inventors who have given attention to the
subject are Messrs J. & G. Cox of Gorgie Mills, near Edinburgh, who adopted
the plan of attaching the hides to a revolving drum, so that, as the drum
went round, the hides should alternately hang suspended in the tan liquor
and alternately press upon each other on the upper side of the drum. Messrs
Cox also originated the process of sewing the hides in the form of bags,
into which they injected the tan liquor. The great object aimed at by all
the experimenters is to force the tan into the pores of the skins, and
hasten the chemical change which is essential to the production of leather.
Mr Boak employs a sort of dash-wheel, which keeps the hides moving about in
a trough, and helps them to imbibe the liquor. The hides prepared for sole
leather are washed and dried after being taken from the tan-pits, and are
then ready for use.
The hides which have to be
dressed are removed from the tan-yards to the currying shops. The business
of the curriers is to scour the leather, and, by a series of operations,
bring it into condition for use. Except splitting the hide, all the work is
done by hand, and is very laborious. The hides are first weighed and
examined, and, according to weight and quality, are selected for various
purposes. The divisions usually made are harness leather, saddle leather,
shoe leather, and patent leather, each of which classes has a number of
subdivisions. It would be tedious to go into the details of all the
processes by which the various kinds of leather are curried and dressed, and
a few general notes must suffice to indicate the nature of the work. A great
difficulty with which tanners have to contend is the way in which skins are
damaged by the carelessness of the butchers in removing the hides from the
carcases. In consequence of cuts and flaws thus produced, only a small
proportion of the hides can be made available for the highest class of
harness work. Following the example of the trade in Glasgow, the tanners of
Edinburgh a year or two since instituted a system of inspection and
classification of well and ill flayed raw hides, which has caused some
improvement in this respect. If great care be not exercised in the selection
of the hides, it might turn out that much valuable labour would be lost by
dressing a hide for a purpose for which it was not suitable. According to
the purpose to which the hide is to be devoted, certain parts of it are cut
off. This is called " rounding." Hides which are to be dressed for harness,
for in-stance, have the belly portion cut off, and are then termed "backs."
The parts removed are treated separately, and applied to various purposes.
The currier begins operations by steeping the hides in clean water. If for
harness, they are cut into two longitudinally. Hides intended for boots, and
those which are to be enamelled or japanned, are dressed whole. The hides,
on coming from the tannery, are found to be of unequal thickness, and the
flesh sides are rough. In order to remove those inequalities the hides are
"shaved," which is, perhaps, the most important part of the currier's work.
Standing in front of a narrow upright board or "beam," which rises to his
waist, the workman stretches a portion of the hide across the face of the
board, and, by dexterously operating on it with a knife of peculiar
construction, reduces it to an equal thickness throughout. As the work
proceeds, he pinches the leather between his finger and thumb, and is thus
enabled to judge of its thickness. This appears an exceedingly simple
operation, but great skill is required to accomplish it properly. In
ordinary cases the hides are " shaved" only on the flesh side, but when the
surface is to be enamelled the grain side has its natural surface removed,
in order that the enamel or varnish may adhere better. After being "shaved,"
the hides are again soaked in water, from which they are taken and rubbed
out well, first on one side and then on the other, on a stone table with a
tool called a "slicker." In that way all the wrinkles and superfluous
matters are got rid of. This process is called "scouring," and when it is
completed the hides are allowed to lie for a day or two in a hot solution of
shumac and water, which tends to brighten the colour. They are then
stuffed—that is, rubbed on the hair side with oil, and on the flesh side
with a mixture of oil and tallow. The effect of this treatment is to make
the leather pliable, and prevent it from getting hard. A machine for
scouring has been recently introduced.
The leather is finished in a
variety of ways. The superfluous "stuffing" is rubbed off, and the surface
polished with a smooth stone or piece of glass, when the leather is to be
sold plain; but when it is to be prepared for harness or shoemaking, it is
usually blackened on one side. Sometimes the shoe leather is "grained" by
doubling the hide and rubbing the fold with a small board. The leather so
treated has a rich, crimped appearance, and is now much used by shoemakers.
For some portions of carriages and harness, and a variety of other purposes,
enamelled and japanned leathers are employed. For the production of those
leathers Mr Boak has a special department. Enamelled leather is made from
all kinds of hides and skins, which have been previously split into thin
layers by the splitting-machine. In some cases one sealskin is split into
three or four. The splitting-machine is the only piece of machinery employed
in the currying department, and is a most useful contrivance. Formerly, when
a hide had to be prepared for enamelling, the currier scraped down the
substance of it from the flesh side, and thus half the weight of the hide
was wasted, because scrapings of that kind are of no use. Now, one hide can
be split with less labour, and with the additional advantage that each slice
is for most purposes as valuable as a whole hide prepared in the old way.
The splitting takes place both before and after the hides are tanned. The
hide to be split is fed into the machine between rollers, and as it passes a
certain point comes into contact with a knife, which moves backward and
forward with great rapidity and splits the hide into two. When the currying
is completed the hides are taken to the japanning shop, where they are
stretched out and nailed upon large boards. The enamelling substance is then
applied, the number of coats being determined by the purpose for which the
leather is intended. Sometimes as many as eight coats are put on, one coat
being thoroughly dried before another is applied. The enamel is dried by
placing the bide, still attached to the boards, in large stoves.
The curriers', though not one
of the most pleasant-looking, is one of the most healthy of occupations,
though the work is very heavy. The men are usually paid by piecework, and
when engaged on some classes of leather, can earn from L.2 to L.3 a-week.
The average wages for Scotland may be stated at 26s. a-week. There is a
union in connection with the trade, having for its object the support of
members when out of work and the regulation of wages. It is upheld by a
General and a Local Fund—the former for the support of members, the latter
for management. There is an Emigration Scheme connected with it, by which
members, on emigrating, are allowed a certain amount. During sickness
members receive for six weeks the highest rate of benefit; and a few of the
old and infirm members are granted pensions. The amount of contribution is
regulated by a sliding scale, rising or falling according to the state of
the funds, but not lower than one shilling a-week. The Edinburgh men have a
Sick and Funeral Society, independent of the funds of the union, which has
been found most beneficial. Apprentices may become members of the local
society, but are not admitted into the union till they have served seven
years' apprenticeship. The number of curriers in Great Britain is reckoned
about 3000, half of whom belong to the union. There are about 250 union men
in Scotland, and about an equal number of non-union. In Edinburgh tanners
earn 20s. a-week, and tannery labourers 16s.
The master tanners and
curriers and their workmen have had no difficulties about wages or modes of
working; and this gratifying state of matters arises from an arrangement by
which, when any question arises between the masters and men, a settlement is
effected by mutual consultation. |
